Internet
per capita for selected countries.}} The Internet ( of interconnected network) is the global system of interconnected s that use the (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked documents and of the (WWW), , , and . The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the in the 1960s to build robust, fault-tolerant communication with computer networks. The primary precursor network, the , initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. The funding of the as a new backbone in the 1980s, as well as private funding for other commercial extensions, led to worldwide participation in the development of new networking technologies, and the merger of many networks. The linking of commercial networks and enterprises by the early 1990s marked the beginning of the transition to the modern Internet, and generated a sustained exponential growth as generations of institutional, , and s were connected to the network. Although the Internet was widely used by since the 1980s, incorporated its services and technologies into virtually every aspect of modern life. Most traditional communication media, including telephony, radio, television, paper mail and newspapers are reshaped, redefined, or even bypassed by the Internet, giving birth to new services such as , , , , digital newspapers, and websites. Newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to technology, or are reshaped into , s and online s. The Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through , s, and . has grown exponentially both for major retailers and es and s, as it enables firms to extend their " " presence to serve a larger market or even . and on the Internet affect s across entire industries. The Internet has no single centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage; each constituent network sets its own policies. The overreaching definitions of the two principal s in the Internet, the (IP address) space and the (DNS), are directed by a maintainer organization, the (ICANN). The technical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols is an activity of the (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise. In November 2006, the Internet was included on 's list of . Terminology , located in , }} When the term Internet is used to refer to the specific global system of interconnected (IP) networks, the word is a that should be written with an initial . In common use and the media, it is often not capitalized, viz. the internet. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, but not capitalized when used as an adjective. The Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, meaning interconnected or interwoven. The designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech; it is common to speak of "going on the Internet" when using a to view s. However, the or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents (web pages) and other s, linked by s and . As another point of comparison, , or HTTP, is the language used on the Web for information transfer, yet it is just one of many languages or protocols that can be used for communication on the Internet. The term is a of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. History Research into , one of the fundamental Internet technologies, started in the early 1960s in the work of , and packet-switched networks such as the by , , the , , and were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The ARPANET project led to the development of for , by which multiple separate networks could be joined into a network of networks. ARPANET development began with two network nodes which were interconnected between the Network Measurement Center at the (UCLA) directed by , and the NLS system at (SRI) by in , California, on 29 October 1969. The third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the , followed by the Graphics Department. In an early sign of future growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film . Early international collaborations for the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the networks. Notable exceptions were the Norwegian Seismic Array ( ) in June 1973, followed in 1973 by Sweden with satellite links to the Earth Station and 's research group in the United Kingdom, initially at the , and later at . In December 1974, (Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program), by , Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the (NSF) funded the (CSNET). In 1982, the (TCP/IP) was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks. TCP/IP network access expanded again in 1986 when the (NSFNet) provided access to sites in the United States for researchers, first at speeds of 56 kbit/s and later at 1.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial (ISPs) emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990. Backbone, c. 1992.}} The Internet rapidly expanded in Europe and Australia in the mid to late 1980s and to Asia in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The beginning of dedicated communication between the NSFNET and networks in Europe was established with a low-speed satellite relay between and in December 1988. Although other network protocols such as had global reach well before this time, this marked the beginning of the Internet as an intercontinental network. Steady advances in technology and created new economic opportunities for commercial involvement in the expansion of the network in its core and for delivering services to the public. In mid-1989, MCI Mail and established connections to the Internet, delivering email and public access products to the half million users of the Internet. Just months later, on 1 January 1990, PSInet launched an alternate Internet backbone for commercial use; one of the networks that added to the core of the commercial Internet of later years. In March 1990, the first high-speed T1 (1.5 Mbit/s) link between the NSFNET and Europe was installed between and , allowing much more robust communications than were capable with satellites. Six months later would begin writing , the first after two years of lobbying CERN management. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the tools necessary for a working Web: the (HTTP) 0.9, the (HTML), the first Web browser (which was also a and could access newsgroups and files), the first HTTP (later known as ), the first , and the first Web pages that described the project itself. In 1991 the was founded, allowing PSInet to communicate with the other commercial networks CERFnet and Alternet. was the first to offer online Internet banking services to all of its members in October 1994. In 1996 , also a , became the second online bank in the world and the first in Europe. By 1995, the Internet was fully commercialized in the U.S. when the NSFNet was decommissioned, removing the last restrictions on use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic. As technology advance and commercial opportunities fueled reciprocal growth, the volume of started experiencing similar characteristics as that of the scaling of , exemplified by , doubling every 18 months. The growth was enabled by advances in technology, lightwave systems, and performance. Since 1995, the Internet has tremendously impacted culture and commerce, including the rise of near instant communication by email, , telephony ( or VoIP), , and the with its , blogs, , and sites. Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over fiber optic networks operating at 1-Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more. The Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater amounts of online information and knowledge, commerce, entertainment and . During the late 1990s, it was estimated that traffic on the public Internet grew by 100 percent per year, while the mean annual growth in the number of Internet users was thought to be between 20% and 50%. This growth is often attributed to the lack of central administration, which allows organic growth of the network, as well as the non-proprietary nature of the Internet protocols, which encourages vendor interoperability and prevents any one company from exerting too much control over the network. , the estimated total number of was 2.095 billion (30.2% of world population). It is estimated that in 1993 the Internet carried only 1% of the information flowing through two-way , by 2000 this figure had grown to 51%, and by 2007 more than 97% of all telecommunicated information was carried over the Internet. Governance neighborhood of , California, United States.}} The Internet is a that comprises many voluntarily interconnected autonomous networks. It operates without a central governing body. The technical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols ( and ) is an activity of the (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise. To maintain interoperability, the principal s of the Internet are administered by the (ICANN). ICANN is governed by an international board of directors drawn from across the Internet technical, business, academic, and other non-commercial communities. ICANN coordinates the assignment of unique identifiers for use on the Internet, including s, Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, application port numbers in the transport protocols, and many other parameters. Globally unified name spaces are essential for maintaining the global reach of the Internet. This role of ICANN distinguishes it as perhaps the only central coordinating body for the global Internet. (RIRs) where established for five regions of the world. The (AfriNIC) for , the (ARIN) for , the (APNIC) for and the , the (LACNIC) for and the region, and the (RIPE NCC) for , the , and were delegated to assign Internet Protocol address blocks and other Internet parameters to local registries, such as s, from a designated pool of addresses set aside for each region. The , an agency of the , had final approval over changes to the until the IANA stewardship transition on 1 October 2016. The (ISOC) was founded in 1992 with a mission to "assure the open development, evolution and use of the Internet for the benefit of all people throughout the world". Its members include individuals (anyone may join) as well as corporations, , governments, and universities. Among other activities ISOC provides an administrative home for a number of less formally organized groups that are involved in developing and managing the Internet, including: the (IETF), (IAB), (IESG), (IRTF), and (IRSG). On 16 November 2005, the United Nations-sponsored in established the (IGF) to discuss Internet-related issues. Infrastructure The communications infrastructure of the Internet consists of its hardware components and a system of software layers that control various aspects of the architecture. Routing and service tiers s (ISPs) establish the worldwide connectivity between individual networks at various levels of scope. End-users who only access the Internet when needed to perform a function or obtain information, represent the bottom of the routing hierarchy. At the top of the routing hierarchy are the s, large telecommunication companies that exchange traffic directly with each other via very high speed s and governed by agreements. and lower level networks buy from other providers to reach at least some parties on the global Internet, though they may also engage in peering. An ISP may use a single upstream provider for connectivity, or implement to achieve redundancy and load balancing. s are major traffic exchanges with physical connections to multiple ISPs. Large organizations, such as academic institutions, large enterprises, and governments, may perform the same function as ISPs, engaging in peering and purchasing transit on behalf of their internal networks. Research networks tend to interconnect with large subnetworks such as , , , and the UK's , . Both the Internet IP routing structure and hypertext links of the World Wide Web are examples of s. Computers and routers use s in their operating system to to the next-hop router or destination. Routing tables are maintained by manual configuration or automatically by s. End-nodes typically use a that points toward an ISP providing transit, while ISP routers use the to establish the most efficient routing across the complex connections of the global Internet. An estimated 70 percent of the world's Internet traffic passes through , . Access Common methods of by users include dial-up with a computer via telephone circuits, over , or copper wires, , , and technology (e.g. , ). The Internet may often be accessed from computers in libraries and s. exist in many public places such as airport halls and coffee shops. Various terms are used, such as public Internet kiosk, public access terminal, and Web . Many hotels also have public terminals that are usually fee-based. These terminals are widely accessed for various usages, such as ticket booking, bank deposit, or online payment. Wi-Fi provides wireless access to the Internet via local computer networks. providing such access include , where users need to bring their own wireless devices such as a laptop or . These services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. efforts have led to s. Commercial Wi-Fi services that cover large areas are available in many cities, such as , , , , , , and , where the Internet can then be accessed from places such as a park bench. Experiments have also been conducted with proprietary mobile wireless networks like , various high-speed data services over cellular networks, and fixed wireless services. Modern s can also access the Internet through the cellular carrier network. For Web browsing, these devices provide applications such as , , and and a wide variety of other Internet software may be installed from app-stores. Internet usage by mobile and tablet devices exceeded desktop worldwide for the first time in October 2016. Mobile communication } The (ITU) estimated that, by the end of 2017, 48% of individual users regularly connect to the Internet, up from 34% in 2012. connectivity has played an important role in expanding access in recent years especially in and in . The number of unique mobile cellular subscriptions increased from 3.89 billion in 2012 to 4.83 billion in 2016, two-thirds of the world's population, with more than half of subscriptions located in Asia and the Pacific. The number of subscriptions is predicted to rise to 5.69 billion users in 2020. , almost 60% of the world's population had access to a broadband cellular network, up from almost 50% in 2015 and 11% in 2012 . The limits that users face on accessing information via mobile applications coincide with a broader process of . Fragmentation restricts access to media content and tends to affect poorest users the most. , the practice of s allowing users free connectivity to access specific content or applications without cost, has offered opportunities to surmount economic hurdles, but has also been accused by its critics as creating a two-tiered Internet. To address the issues with zero-rating, an alternative model has emerged in the concept of 'equal rating' and is being tested in experiments by and in . Equal rating prevents prioritization of one type of content and zero-rates all content up to a specified data cap. A study published by , 15 out of 19 countries researched in had some kind of hybrid or zero-rated product offered. Some countries in the region had a handful of plans to choose from (across all mobile network operators) while others, such as , offered as many as 30 pre-paid and 34 post-paid plans. A study of eight countries in the found that zero-rated data plans exist in every country, although there is a great range in the frequency with which they are offered and actually used in each.. The study looked at the top three to five carriers by market share in Bangladesh, Colombia, Ghana, India, Kenya, Nigeria, Peru and Philippines. Across the 181 plans examined, 13 per cent were offering zero-rated services. Another study, covering , , and , found 's Free Basics and to be the most commonly zero-rated content. Protocols While the hardware components in the Internet infrastructure can often be used to support other software systems, it is the design and the standardization process of the software that characterizes the Internet and provides the foundation for its scalability and success. The responsibility for the architectural design of the Internet software systems has been assumed by the (IETF). The IETF conducts standard-setting work groups, open to any individual, about the various aspects of Internet architecture. Resulting contributions and standards are published as (RFC) documents on the IETF web site. The principal methods of networking that enable the Internet are contained in specially designated RFCs that constitute the s. Other less rigorous documents are simply informative, experimental, or historical, or document the best current practices (BCP) when implementing Internet technologies. The Internet standards describe a framework known as the , or in short as , based on the first two components. This is a model architecture that divides methods into a layered system of protocols, originally documented in RFC 1122 and RFC 1123. The layers correspond to the environment or scope in which their services operate. At the top is the , space for the application-specific networking methods used in software applications. For example, a web browser program uses the application model and a specific protocol of interaction between servers and clients, while many file-sharing systems use a paradigm. Below this top layer, the connects applications on different hosts with a logical channel through the network with appropriate data exchange methods. Underlying these layers are the networking technologies that interconnect networks at their borders and exchange traffic across them. The enables computers to identify and locate each other by , and routes their traffic via intermediate (transit) networks. At the bottom of the architecture is the , which provides logical connectivity between hosts on the same network link, such as a (LAN) or a . The model is designed to be independent of the underlying hardware used for the physical connections, which the model does not concern itself with in any detail. Other models have been developed, such as the , that attempt to be comprehensive in every aspect of communications. While many similarities exist between the models, they are not compatible in the details of description or implementation. Yet, TCP/IP protocols are usually included in the discussion of OSI networking. The most prominent component of the Internet model is the Internet Protocol (IP), which provides addressing systems, including es, for computers on the network. IP enables internetworking and, in essence, establishes the Internet itself. (IPv4) is the initial version used on the first generation of the Internet and is still in dominant use. It was designed to address up to ≈4.3 billion (109) hosts. However, the explosive growth of the Internet has led to , which entered its final stage in 2011, when the global address allocation pool was exhausted. A new protocol version, IPv6, was developed in the mid-1990s, which provides vastly larger addressing capabilities and more efficient routing of Internet traffic. is currently in growing around the world, since Internet address registries ( ) began to urge all resource managers to plan rapid adoption and conversion. IPv6 is not directly interoperable by design with IPv4. In essence, it establishes a parallel version of the Internet not directly accessible with IPv4 software. Thus, translation facilities must exist for internetworking or nodes must have duplicate networking software for both networks. Essentially all modern computer operating systems support both versions of the Internet Protocol. Network infrastructure, however, has been lagging in this development. Aside from the complex array of physical connections that make up its infrastructure, the Internet is facilitated by bi- or multi-lateral commercial contracts, e.g., s, and by technical specifications or protocols that describe the exchange of data over the network. Indeed, the Internet is defined by its interconnections and routing policies. Services The Internet carries many s, most prominently the , including , , lications, s, , , and services. The terms Internet and World Wide Web, or just the Web, are often used interchangeably, but the two terms are not synonymous. The is a primary application program that billions of people use on the Internet, and it has changed their lives immeasurably. World Wide Web was used by at and became the world's first .}} The is a global collection of , , , applications, and other resources, logically interrelated by s and referenced with s (URIs), which provide a global system of named references. URIs symbolically identify services, , databases, and the documents and resources that they can provide. (HTTP) is the main access protocol of the World Wide Web. s also use HTTP for communication between software systems for sharing and exchanging business data and logistics. World Wide Web browser software, such as 's / , , , 's , and , lets users navigate from one web page to another via the hyperlinks embedded in the documents. These documents may also contain any combination of , including graphics, sounds, , , and interactive content that runs while the user is interacting with the page. can include animations, , and scientific demonstrations. Through -driven using like , and , users worldwide have easy, instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to printed media, books, encyclopedias and traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has enabled the decentralization of information on a large scale. The Web has enabled individuals and organizations to ideas and information to a potentially large online at greatly reduced expense and time delay. Publishing a web page, a blog, or building a website involves little initial and many cost-free services are available. However, publishing and maintaining large, professional web sites with attractive, diverse and up-to-date information is still a difficult and expensive proposition. Many individuals and some companies and groups use web logs or blogs, which are largely used as easily updatable online diaries. Some commercial organizations encourage to communicate advice in their areas of specialization in the hope that visitors will be impressed by the expert knowledge and free information, and be attracted to the corporation as a result. on popular web pages can be lucrative, and , which is the sale of products and services directly via the Web, continues to grow. Online advertising is a form of and advertising which uses the Internet to deliver marketing messages to consumers. It includes email marketing, (SEM), social media marketing, many types of (including advertising), and . In 2011, Internet advertising revenues in the United States surpassed those of and nearly exceeded those of . Many common online advertising practices are controversial and increasingly subject to regulation. When the Web developed in the 1990s, a typical web page was stored in completed form on a web server, formatted in , complete for transmission to a web browser in response to a request. Over time, the process of creating and serving web pages has become dynamic, creating a flexible design, layout, and content. Websites are often created using software with, initially, very little content. Contributors to these systems, who may be paid staff, members of an organization or the public, fill underlying databases with content using editing pages designed for that purpose while casual visitors view and read this content in HTML form. There may or may not be editorial, approval and security systems built into the process of taking newly entered content and making it available to the target visitors. Communication is an important communications service available on the Internet. The concept of sending electronic text messages between parties in a way analogous to mailing letters or memos predates the creation of the Internet. Pictures, documents, and other files are sent as s. Emails can be to multiple es. is another common communications service made possible by the creation of the Internet. stands for Voice-over- , referring to the protocol that underlies all Internet communication. The idea began in the early 1990s with -like voice applications for personal computers. In recent years many VoIP systems have become as easy to use and as convenient as a normal telephone. The benefit is that, as the Internet carries the voice traffic, VoIP can be free or cost much less than a traditional telephone call, especially over long distances and especially for those with always-on Internet connections such as or and . VoIP is maturing into a competitive alternative to traditional telephone service. Interoperability between different providers has improved and the ability to call or receive a call from a traditional telephone is available. Simple, inexpensive VoIP network adapters are available that eliminate the need for a personal computer. Voice quality can still vary from call to call, but is often equal to and can even exceed that of traditional calls. Remaining problems for VoIP include dialing and reliability. Currently, a few VoIP providers provide an emergency service, but it is not universally available. Older traditional phones with no "extra features" may be line-powered only and operate during a power failure; VoIP can never do so without a for the phone equipment and the Internet access devices. VoIP has also become increasingly popular for gaming applications, as a form of communication between players. Popular VoIP clients for gaming include and . Modern video game consoles also offer VoIP chat features. Data transfer is an example of transferring large amounts of data across the Internet. A can be emailed to customers, colleagues and friends as an attachment. It can be uploaded to a website or (FTP) server for easy download by others. It can be put into a "shared location" or onto a for instant use by colleagues. The load of bulk downloads to many users can be eased by the use of " " servers or networks. In any of these cases, access to the file may be controlled by user , the transit of the file over the Internet may be obscured by , and money may change hands for access to the file. The price can be paid by the remote charging of funds from, for example, a credit card whose details are also passed – usually fully encrypted – across the Internet. The origin and authenticity of the file received may be checked by s or by or other message digests. These simple features of the Internet, over a worldwide basis, are changing the production, sale, and distribution of anything that can be reduced to a computer file for transmission. This includes all manner of print publications, software products, news, music, film, video, photography, graphics and the other arts. This in turn has caused seismic shifts in each of the existing industries that previously controlled the production and distribution of these products. is the real-time delivery of digital media for the immediate consumption or enjoyment by end users. Many radio and television broadcasters provide Internet feeds of their live audio and video productions. They may also allow time-shift viewing or listening such as Preview, Classic Clips and Listen Again features. These providers have been joined by a range of pure Internet "broadcasters" who never had on-air licenses. This means that an Internet-connected device, such as a computer or something more specific, can be used to access on-line media in much the same way as was previously possible only with a television or radio receiver. The range of available types of content is much wider, from specialized technical s to on-demand popular multimedia services. ing is a variation on this theme, where – usually audio – material is downloaded and played back on a computer or shifted to a to be listened to on the move. These techniques using simple equipment allow anybody, with little censorship or licensing control, to broadcast audio-visual material worldwide. Digital media streaming increases the demand for network bandwidth. For example, standard image quality needs 1 Mbit/s link speed for SD 480p, HD 720p quality requires 2.5 Mbit/s, and the top-of-the-line HDX quality needs 4.5 Mbit/s for 1080p. s are a low-cost extension of this phenomenon. While some webcams can give full-frame-rate video, the picture either is usually small or updates slowly. Internet users can watch animals around an African waterhole, ships in the , traffic at a local roundabout or monitor their own premises, live and in real time. Video and are also popular with many uses being found for personal webcams, with and without two-way sound. YouTube was founded on 15 February 2005 and is now the leading website for free streaming video with a vast number of users. It uses a HTML5 based web player by default to stream and show video files. Registered users may upload an unlimited amount of video and build their own personal profile. claims that its users watch hundreds of millions, and upload hundreds of thousands of videos daily. Social impact The Internet has enabled new forms of social interaction, activities, and social associations. This phenomenon has given rise to the scholarly study of the . Users .}} }} }} Internet usage has grown tremendously. From 2000 to 2009, the number of Internet users globally rose from 394 million to 1.858 billion. By 2010, 22 percent of the world's population had access to computers with 1 billion searches every day, 300 million Internet users reading blogs, and 2 billion videos viewed daily on . In 2014 the world's Internet users surpassed 3 billion or 43.6 percent of world population, but two-thirds of the users came from richest countries, with 78.0 percent of Europe countries population using the Internet, followed by 57.4 percent of the Americas. However, by 2018, this trend had shifted so tremendously that Asia alone accounted for 51% of all Internet users, with 2.2 billion out of the 4.3 billion Internet users in the world coming from that region. The number of China's Internet users surpassed a major milestone in 2018, when the country's Internet regulatory authority, China Internet Network Information Centre, announced that China had 802 million Internet users. By 2019, China was the world's leading country in terms of Internet users, with more than 800 million users, followed closely by India, with some 700 million users, with USA a distant third with 275 million users. However, in terms of penetration, China has a 38.4% penetration rate compared to India's 40% and USA's 80%. The prevalent language for communication via the Internet has been English. This may be a result of the origin of the Internet, as well as the language's role as a . Early computer systems were limited to the characters in the (ASCII), a subset of the . After English (27%), the most requested languages on the are Chinese (25%), Spanish (8%), Japanese (5%), Portuguese and German (4% each), Arabic, French and Russian (3% each), and Korean (2%). By region, 42% of the world's are based in Asia, 24% in Europe, 14% in North America, 10% in Latin America and the taken together, 6% in Africa, 3% in the Middle East and 1% in Australia/Oceania. The Internet's technologies have developed enough in recent years, especially in the use of , that good facilities are available for development and communication in the world's widely used languages. However, some glitches such as (incorrect display of some languages' characters) still remain. In an American study in 2005, the percentage of men using the Internet was very slightly ahead of the percentage of women, although this difference reversed in those under 30. Men logged on more often, spent more time online, and were more likely to be broadband users, whereas women tended to make more use of opportunities to communicate (such as email). Men were more likely to use the Internet to pay bills, participate in auctions, and for recreation such as downloading music and videos. Men and women were equally likely to use the Internet for shopping and banking. More recent studies indicate that in 2008, women significantly outnumbered men on most social networking sites, such as Facebook and Myspace, although the ratios varied with age. In addition, women watched more streaming content, whereas men downloaded more. In terms of blogs, men were more likely to blog in the first place; among those who blog, men were more likely to have a professional blog, whereas women were more likely to have a personal blog. Forecasts predict that 44% of the world's population will be users of the Internet by 2020. Splitting by country, in 2012 Iceland, Norway, Sweden, the Netherlands, and Denmark had the highest , with 93% or more of the population with access. Several neologisms exist that refer to Internet users: (as in "citizen of the net") refers to those in improving , the Internet in general or surrounding political affairs and rights such as , refers to operators or technically highly capable users of the Internet, refers to a person using the Internet in order to engage in society, politics, and government participation. Usage 'Source: .}} as a percentage of a country's population Source: .}} as a percentage of a country's population Source: .}} The Internet allows greater flexibility in working hours and location, especially with the spread of unmetered high-speed connections. The Internet can be accessed almost anywhere by numerous means, including through s. Mobile phones, s, s and s allow users to connect to the Internet ly. Within the limitations imposed by small screens and other limited facilities of such pocket-sized devices, the services of the Internet, including email and the web, may be available. Service providers may restrict the services offered and mobile data charges may be significantly higher than other access methods. Educational material at all levels from pre-school to post-doctoral is available from websites. Examples range from , through school and high-school revision guides and , to access to top-end scholarly literature through the likes of . For , help with and other assignments, self-guided learning, whiling away spare time, or just looking up more detail on an interesting fact, it has never been easier for people to access educational information at any level from anywhere. The Internet in general and the in particular are important enablers of both and . Further, the Internet allows universities, in particular, researchers from the social and behavioral sciences, to conduct research remotely via virtual laboratories, with profound changes in reach and generalizability of findings as well as in communication between scientists and in the publication of results. The low cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge, and skills have made work dramatically easier, with the help of . Not only can a group cheaply communicate and share ideas but the wide reach of the Internet allows such groups more easily to form. An example of this is the , which has produced, among other things, , , and (later forked into ). Internet chat, whether using an chat room, an system, or a website, allows colleagues to stay in touch in a very convenient way while working at their computers during the day. Messages can be exchanged even more quickly and conveniently than via email. These systems may allow files to be exchanged, drawings and images to be shared, or voice and video contact between team members. systems allow collaborating teams to work on shared sets of documents simultaneously without accidentally destroying each other's work. Business and project teams can share calendars as well as documents and other information. Such collaboration occurs in a wide variety of areas including scientific research, software development, conference planning, political activism and creative writing. Social and political collaboration is also becoming more widespread as both Internet access and spread. The Internet allows computer users to remotely access other computers and information stores easily from any access point. Access may be with , i.e. authentication and encryption technologies, depending on the requirements. This is encouraging new ways of working from home, collaboration and information sharing in many industries. An accountant sitting at home can the books of a company based in another country, on a situated in a third country that is remotely maintained by IT specialists in a fourth. These accounts could have been created by home-working bookkeepers, in other remote locations, based on information emailed to them from offices all over the world. Some of these things were possible before the widespread use of the Internet, but the cost of private s would have made many of them infeasible in practice. An office worker away from their desk, perhaps on the other side of the world on a business trip or a holiday, can access their emails, access their data using , or open a session into their office PC using a secure (VPN) connection on the Internet. This can give the worker complete access to all of their normal files and data, including email and other applications, while away from the office. It has been referred to among s as the Virtual Private Nightmare, because it extends the secure perimeter of a corporate network into remote locations and its employees' homes. Social networking and entertainment Many people use the World Wide Web to access news, weather and sports reports, to plan and book vacations and to pursue their personal interests. People use , messaging and email to make and stay in touch with friends worldwide, sometimes in the same way as some previously had s. websites such as , , and have created new ways to socialize and interact. Users of these sites are able to add a wide variety of information to pages, to pursue common interests, and to connect with others. It is also possible to find existing acquaintances, to allow communication among existing groups of people. Sites like foster commercial and business connections. YouTube and specialize in users' videos and photographs. While social networking sites were initially for individuals only, today they are widely used by businesses and other organizations to promote their brands, to market to their customers and to encourage posts to " ". "Black hat" social media techniques are also employed by some organizations, such as accounts and . A risk for both individuals and organizations writing posts (especially public posts) on social networking websites, is that especially foolish or controversial posts occasionally lead to an unexpected and possibly large-scale backlash on social media from other Internet users. This is also a risk in relation to controversial offline behavior, if it is widely made known. The nature of this backlash can range widely from counter-arguments and public mockery, through insults and , to, in extreme cases, rape and death . The describes the tendency of many individuals to behave more stridently or offensively online than they would in person. A significant number of women have been the target of various forms of in response to posts they have made on social media, and Twitter in particular has been criticised in the past for not doing enough to aid victims of online abuse. For organizations, such a backlash can cause overall , especially if reported by the media. However, this is not always the case, as any brand damage in the eyes of people with an opposing opinion to that presented by the organization could sometimes be outweighed by strengthening the brand in the eyes of others. Furthermore, if an organization or individual gives in to demands that others perceive as wrong-headed, that can then provoke a counter-backlash. Some websites, such as , have rules forbidding the posting of of individuals (also known as ), due to concerns about such postings leading to mobs of large numbers of Internet users directing harassment at the specific individuals thereby identified. In particular, the Reddit rule forbidding the posting of personal information is widely understood to imply that all identifying photos and names must be in Facebook posted to Reddit. However, the interpretation of this rule in relation to public Twitter posts is less clear, and in any case, like-minded people online have many other ways they can use to direct each other's attention to public social media posts they disagree with. Children also face dangers online such as and , who sometimes pose as children themselves. Children may also encounter material which they may find upsetting, or material which their parents consider to be not age-appropriate. Due to naivety, they may also post personal information about themselves online, which could put them or their families at risk unless warned not to do so. Many parents choose to enable , and/or supervise their children's online activities, in an attempt to protect their children from inappropriate material on the Internet. The most popular social networking websites, such as Facebook and Twitter, commonly forbid users under the age of 13. However, these policies are typically trivial to circumvent by registering an account with a false birth date, and a significant number of children aged under 13 join such sites anyway. Social networking sites for younger children, which claim to provide better levels of protection for children, also exist. The Internet has been a major outlet for leisure activity since its inception, with entertaining s such as s and s being conducted on university servers, and humor-related groups receiving much traffic. Many have sections devoted to games and funny videos. The and industries have taken advantage of the World Wide Web, and often provide a significant source of advertising revenue for other websites. Although many governments have attempted to restrict both industries' use of the Internet, in general, this has failed to stop their widespread popularity. Another area of leisure activity on the Internet is . This form of recreation creates communities, where people of all ages and origins enjoy the fast-paced world of multiplayer games. These range from to s, from s to . While online gaming has been around since the 1970s, modern modes of online gaming began with subscription services such as and . Non-subscribers were limited to certain types of game play or certain games. Many people use the Internet to access and download music, movies and other works for their enjoyment and relaxation. Free and fee-based services exist for all of these activities, using centralized servers and distributed peer-to-peer technologies. Some of these sources exercise more care with respect to the original artists' copyrights than others. Internet usage has been correlated to users' loneliness. Lonely people tend to use the Internet as an outlet for their feelings and to share their stories with others, such as in the " " thread. is a new organizational form which involves: "highly dispersed small groups of practitioners that may remain largely anonymous within the larger social context and operate in relative secrecy, while still linked remotely to a larger network of believers who share a set of practices and texts, and often a common devotion to a particular leader. Overseas supporters provide funding and support; domestic practitioners distribute tracts, participate in acts of resistance, and share information on the internal situation with outsiders. Collectively, members and practitioners of such sects construct viable virtual communities of faith, exchanging personal testimonies and engaging in the collective study via email, on-line chat rooms, and web-based message boards." In particular, the British government has raised concerns about the prospect of young British Muslims being indoctrinated into Islamic extremism by material on the Internet, being persuaded to join groups such as the so-called " ", and then potentially committing acts of terrorism on returning to Britain after fighting in Syria or Iraq. can become a drain on corporate resources; the average UK employee spent 57 minutes a day surfing the Web while at work, according to a 2003 study by Peninsula Business Services. is excessive computer use that interferes with daily life. believes that Internet use has other , for instance improving skills of scan-reading and with the deep thinking that leads to true creativity. Electronic business (e-business) encompasses business processes spanning the entire : purchasing, , , , service, and business relationship. seeks to add revenue streams using the Internet to build and enhance relationships with clients and partners. According to , the size of worldwide e-commerce, when global business-to-business and -consumer transactions are combined, equate to $16 trillion for 2013. A report by Oxford Economics adds those two together to estimate the total size of the at $20.4 trillion, equivalent to roughly 13.8% of global sales. While much has been written of the economic advantages of , there is also evidence that some aspects of the Internet such as maps and location-aware services may serve to reinforce and the . Electronic commerce may be responsible for and the decline of , businesses resulting in increases in . Author , a long-time critic of the social transformations caused by the Internet, has recently focused on the economic effects of consolidation from Internet businesses. Keen cites a 2013 report saying brick-and-mortar retailers employ 47 people for every $10 million in sales while Amazon employs only 14. Similarly, the 700-employee room rental start-up was valued at $10 billion in 2014, about half as much as , which employs 152,000 people. At that time, employed 1,000 full-time employees and was valued at $18.2 billion, about the same valuation as and combined, which together employed almost 60,000 people. Telecommuting is the performance within a traditional worker and employer relationship when it is facilitated by tools such as , , , , and (VOIP) so that work may be performed from any location, most conveniently the worker's home. It can be efficient and useful for companies as it allows workers to communicate over long distances, saving significant amounts of travel time and cost. As Internet connections become commonplace, more workers have adequate bandwidth at home to use these tools to link their home to their corporate and internal communication networks. Collaborative publishing s have also been used in the academic community for sharing and dissemination of information across institutional and international boundaries. In those settings, they have been found useful for collaboration on , , departmental documentation, and committee work. The uses a wiki to allow the public to collaborate on finding relevant to examination of pending patent applications. , New York has used a wiki to allow citizens to collaborate on the design and planning of a local park. The has the largest user base among wikis on the World Wide Web and ranks in the top 10 among all Web sites in terms of traffic. Politics and political revolutions during the , informing the public that 'like' or 'share' activities on social media could result in imprisonment (observed June 30, 2014).}} The Internet has achieved new relevance as a political tool. The presidential campaign of in 2004 in the United States was notable for its success in soliciting donation via the Internet. Many political groups use the Internet to achieve a new method of organizing for carrying out their mission, having given rise to , most notably practiced by rebels in the . suggested that websites, such as Facebook and Twitter, helped people organize the political revolutions in Egypt, by helping activists organize protests, communicate grievances, and disseminate information. Many have understood the Internet as an extension of the notion of the , observing how network communication technologies provide something like a global civic forum. However, incidents of politically motivated have now been recorded in many countries, including western democracies. Philanthropy The spread of low-cost Internet access in developing countries has opened up new possibilities for charities, which allow individuals to contribute small amounts to charitable projects for other individuals. Websites, such as and , allow small-scale donors to direct funds to individual projects of their choice. A popular twist on Internet-based philanthropy is the use of for charitable purposes. pioneered this concept in 2005, offering the first web-based service to publish individual loan profiles for funding. Kiva raises funds for local intermediary organizations which post stories and updates on behalf of the borrowers. Lenders can contribute as little as $25 to loans of their choice, and receive their money back as borrowers repay. Kiva falls short of being a pure peer-to-peer charity, in that loans are disbursed before being funded by lenders and borrowers do not communicate with lenders themselves. However, the recent spread of low-cost Internet access in has made genuine international person-to-person philanthropy increasingly feasible. In 2009, the US-based nonprofit tapped into this trend to offer the first person-to-person microfinance platform to link lenders and borrowers across international borders without intermediaries. Members can fund loans for as little as a dollar, which the borrowers then use to develop business activities that improve their families' incomes while repaying loans to the members with interest. Borrowers access the Internet via public cybercafes, donated laptops in village schools, and even smart phones, then create their own profile pages through which they share photos and information about themselves and their businesses. As they repay their loans, borrowers continue to share updates and dialogue with lenders via their profile pages. This direct web-based connection allows members themselves to take on many of the communication and recording tasks traditionally performed by local organizations, bypassing geographic barriers and dramatically reducing the cost of microfinance services to the entrepreneurs. Security Internet resources, hardware, and software components are the target of criminal or malicious attempts to gain unauthorized control to cause interruptions, commit fraud, engage in blackmail or access private information. Malware is malicious software used and distributed via the Internet. It includes es which are copied with the help of humans, s which copy themselves automatically, software for s, , s, and that reports on the activity and typing of users. Usually, these activities constitute . Defense theorists have also speculated about the possibilities of using similar methods on a large scale. Surveillance The vast majority of computer surveillance involves the monitoring of and on the Internet. In the United States for example, under the , all phone calls and broadband Internet traffic (emails, web traffic, instant messaging, etc.) are required to be available for unimpeded real-time monitoring by Federal law enforcement agencies. is the monitoring of data traffic on a . Computers communicate over the Internet by breaking up messages (emails, images, videos, web pages, files, etc.) into small chunks called "packets", which are routed through a network of computers, until they reach their destination, where they are assembled back into a complete "message" again. intercepts these packets as they are traveling through the network, in order to examine their contents using other programs. A packet capture is an information gathering tool, but not an analysis tool. That is it gathers "messages" but it does not analyze them and figure out what they mean. Other programs are needed to perform and sift through intercepted data looking for important/useful information. Under the all U.S. telecommunications providers are required to install packet sniffing technology to allow Federal law enforcement and intelligence agencies to intercept all of their customers' and (VoIP) traffic. The large amount of data gathered from packet capturing requires surveillance software that filters and reports relevant information, such as the use of certain words or phrases, the access of certain types of web sites, or communicating via email or chat with certain parties. Agencies, such as the , , and the , spend billions of dollars per year to develop, purchase, implement, and operate systems for interception and analysis of data. Similar systems are operated by to identify and suppress dissidents. The required hardware and software was allegedly installed by German and Finnish . Censorship (2018) }} Some governments, such as those of , , , the , and the restrict access to content on the Internet within their territories, especially to political and religious content, with domain name and keyword filters. In Norway, Denmark, Finland, and Sweden, major Internet service providers have voluntarily agreed to restrict access to sites listed by authorities. While this list of forbidden resources is supposed to contain only known child pornography sites, the content of the list is secret. Many countries, including the United States, have enacted laws against the possession or distribution of certain material, such as , via the Internet, but do not mandate filter software. Many free or commercially available software programs, called are available to users to block offensive websites on individual computers or networks, in order to limit access by children to pornographic material or depiction of violence. Performance As the Internet is a heterogeneous network, the physical characteristics, including for example the of connections, vary widely. It exhibits that depend on its large-scale organization. Carried traffic Internet traffic is the flow of across the Internet, and its size may be measured in terms of bytes. However, because of the distributed nature of the Internet, there is no single point of measurement for total Internet traffic. Nevertheless, internet traffic data from public peering points can give an indication of Internet volume and growth, but these figures exclude traffic that remains within a single service provider's network as well as traffic that crosses private peering points. Outages An Internet blackout or outage can be caused by local signalling interruptions. Disruptions of s may cause blackouts or slowdowns to large areas, such as in the . Less-developed countries are more vulnerable due to a small number of high-capacity links. Land cables are also vulnerable, as in 2011 when a woman digging for scrap metal severed most connectivity for the nation of Armenia. Internet blackouts affecting almost entire countries can be achieved by governments as a form of , as in the blockage of the , whereby approximately 93% of networks were without access in 2011 in an attempt to stop mobilization for . Energy use In 2011, researchers estimated the energy used by the Internet to be between 170 and 307 GW, less than two percent of the energy used by humanity. This estimate included the energy needed to build, operate, and periodically replace the estimated 750 million laptops, a billion smart phones and 100 million servers worldwide as well as the energy that routers, cell towers, optical switches, Wi-Fi transmitters and cloud storage devices use when transmitting Internet traffic. According to a study published in 2018, nearly 4% of global CO2 emission could be attributed to global data transfer and the necessary infrastructure. The study also said that online video streaming alone accounted for 60% of this data transfer and therefore contributed to over 300 million tons of CO2 emission per year. References Category:Internet